
“You take the drink first, then the drink takes the drink, and then the drink takes you,” says the adage. This simple yet powerful line from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel “The Great Gatsby” got me thinking about the never-ending epidemic of alcohol abuse that has plagued humanity since the dawn of time.

We all know the key causes of alcoholism: social pressure, a stressful atmosphere, a family background, and so on. However, have you ever thought about the chemistry of alcoholism and how to cope with it? Keep reading to find out!

## What is alcoholism?

Alcoholism, also known as alcohol addiction, is a chronic, progressive, and potentially fatal disease that causes psychological or physical dependency or addiction. Alcohol’s morbidity and mortality extend to those who misuse it; in addition to declining personal wellbeing, it has been linked to an increased risk of injuries, as well as higher rates of crime and violence.

## Chemistry behind it –

Individual drinking habits are usually influenced by positive and/or negative feedback mechanisms.

The rewarding and desirable effects of alcohol are largely determined by dopamine and serotonin levels in the body, so the positive reinforcing effects of alcohol are described at the neurotransmitter stage.

Negative reinforcement, or the relief of negative or psychological states by alcohol, causes an increase in corticotropin-releasing factor recruitment and a decrease in GABA transmission (it is primarily linked to blocking certain brain signals in the nervous system and producing a calming effect).

Long-term alcohol exposure induces adaptive changes in the aforementioned neurotransmitters, to the point that the individual is unable to work normally without it. Although abruptly stopping (alcohol withdrawal) may trigger nervous system hyperactivity and dysfunction, resulting in anxiety, exhaustion, insomnia, and, in extreme cases, seizures, hallucinations, and even heart failure.

## Alcohol de-addiction –

Treating alcohol addiction can prove to be complex and challenging, while there are various factors involved in it, none of those will work if the person in concern doesn’t want a sober life.

There are various treatment options for alcoholism such as:

Rehab: One of the most common treatments, wherein the person might go for an inpatient or outpatient rehabilitation program.
Support groups: Individuals with common backgrounds and interests form groups to provide emotional and moral support. When making the transition to sobriety, it is recommended to get involved with at least one such organization, regardless of the form of support system.
Pharmacological treatment: Only three drugs have been approved by the FDA (U.S. Food & Drug Administration) for use in alcohol de-addiction:

                            I. Acamprosate

                            II. Naltrexone
                            
                            III.Disulfiram

1.  Acamprosate: It works by antagonizing the activities of glutamate, a neurotransmitter that is hyperactive in the post-withdrawal process. Acamprosate can minimize or avoid alcohol withdrawal-related neurotoxicity by lowering excessive NMDA activity, which occurs at the onset of alcohol withdrawal.

2.  Naltrexone: Alcohol allows the body to release endorphins, which allow dopamine to be released and reward receptors to be activated, reducing the pleasurable effects of drinking. Naltrexone is an opioid receptor antagonist that effectively blocks the effects of endorphins and opioids.

3.  Disulfiram: Disulfiram prevents the body from eliminating acetaldehyde, a chemical generated when ethanol is broken down. Many hangover symptoms are caused by acetaldehyde, which is produced when alcohol is consumed.

Apart from the first three, Europe has approved treatment with the fourth form, Nalmefene, though its efficacy is still debatable, according to a meta-analysis.

Despite the fact that most of these drugs have been around for decades, only a small number of people have benefited from them. As Gerard Schmidt, an addiction counselor and president of the Association for Addiction Professionals, puts it, “Medications are just the beginning of how you make the psychological change that needs to occur.”

References:

[HealthLine](https://www.healthline.com/health/addiction/alcohol#treatment)

[Sciencemag](https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/9/eaax4043)

[Fighting Alcohol Addiction](https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/addiction/features/fighting-alcoholism-with-medications#1)


Chemistry Of Alcohol Addiction

‘A great machine isn’t about huge things, it is about small things making a huge difference.’ While it may seem small, the ripple effects are extraordinary. Machines are everywhere – from the most complex computers to the simplest pencil, anything which makes our work easy is a machine. The human body is one of the most complex machines. It is composed of millions of machines constantly working, tirelessly, to make our body function properly. 

A molecular machine is an assembly of a distinct number of molecular components designed to perform machine-like movements as a result of an appropriate stimulus. Every machine has a basic working structure: Input – Process – Output. Molecular machines use the energy currency of the body, ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), and are about 1000 times smaller than common molecules.

In 1930, the study took a giant leap when Dr. Jean Pierre Sauvage introduced template synthesis as a straightforward route to catenanes. Catenanes are interlocked molecules composed of two macrocycles. In short, these are two ring-shaped molecules linked into small chains. Rotaxanes, on the other hand, are interlocked molecules composed of a macrocycle with an axle molecule threaded through it, kept in place by bulky end groups. This discovery invigorated the field of topological chemistry and opened the gateway to an entirely new field of molecular machinery.

The study took another leap when Sir James Fraser Stoddart discovered an alternative template-based method to synthesize mechanically interlocked molecules, in which interactions between electron-rich and electron-poor aromatic entities were used. With further study, these resulting structures developed into molecular shuttles. Through collaboration with Dr. Sauvage, they demonstrated reversible catenane shapeshifting. 

For any machine to be functional and useful to us, it should be programmable, easy to control, and perform the operations we intend it to perform. In 1999, Dr. Bernard L. Feringa demonstrated a controlled unidirectional rotation, a movement typically seen in a motor. He used overcrowded alkenes and asymmetries in the molecules to obtain a unidirectional rotation by light irradiation and thermal relaxation. He and his team developed a motor that consists of a molecular rotor that spins in just one direction when powered by heat and light.

This motor was called (3R, 3’R)-(P, P)-trans 1,’1,2,’2,3,’3,4,’4,-octahydro-3,’3-dimethyl-4,’4-biphenanthryanlidene. Pretty cool, isn’t it?

These isomerisable unsaturated bonds have been the most important part of the development of molecular machines. They have incorporated the mechanical bond and unidirectional rotation into a functional molecular machine and constitute the foundation of the entire study. This technology can later be used to develop nanotechnology, which in turn can enhance medical aid. For example, suppose nerve damage is found. In that case, these molecular machines can be stimulated to operate on it and repair the nerve damage with higher precision, to repair torn muscles, to treat genetic disorders. Further, they can be useful in computers, smart materials and energy storing devices. First, chemists came up with a molecular switch, which can be a base for more complex machinery. At present, chemists have developed molecular stir bars, molecular ratchets, molecular elevators, molecular muscles, and molecular cars.

In the year 2016, Dr. Sauvage, Sir Stoddart and Dr. Bernard were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their design and synthesis of molecular machines, which in the future has a wide range of applications. It’s just a matter of time before we can utilize this technology to its full potential!

Molecular Mechanics

# WHAT ARE CARBON DOTS?

So, starting with a basic introduction – Carbon dots (CDs) have emerged as gifts in nanotechnology because of their magical properties and application. CDs have an average diameter of less than 10nm. These CDs are derived from organic compounds and are stable in an aqueous medium. A significant role is played by surface engineering for CDs in diversified applications like chemical sensing, food safety, bioimaging, drug delivery, etc. The chemical properties of CDs vary, tuning their shapes and sizes and the doping of heteroatoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, Sulphur, and boron. Both natural and synthetic organic precursors can be used to synthesize CDs.

# WHAT LED TO ITS DISCOVERY?

CDs were discovered accidentally in 2004 while purification of single-wall carbon nanotubes by Xu et Au. Within a headwater soluble CDs passivated with poly – propionyl ethylene co-ethylenimine has been reported by sun et al. The as-prepared CDs showed two-photon induced luminescence spectra and were utilized to detect human breast cancer MCF-7 cells.

# NOW WE COME TO THEIR ARCHITECTURE

These CDs are the youngest member of the family of the nanoworld. CDs are both sp2 and sp3 hybrid carbon networks. It can easily be combined with hydroxyl, carbonyl, amino, and other such groups over their surface, thereby offering an extra advantage for binding with both inorganic and organic moieties. These functional groups attached allow the surfaces of CDs to espouse them with either hydrophilic or hydrophobic character to provide thermodynamic stabilities in different solvents, especially in water. CDs do not exhibit any kind of photoluminescent activities. Surface modifications in CDs by diverse functional group, passivating agent and solvent, reflects smart variation in their properties.

# BUT HOW CAN WE SYNTHESIZE THEM? LET’S READ –

For making CDs with various photophysical properties and functionalities, several easy synthetic methodologies have been created. Synthetic pathways, are divided into two – bottom-up and top-down

# Bottom-up Approach

CDs are synthesized by microwave irradiation, hydrothermal, and pyrolysis methods from small molecules in the “bottom-up” technique.

## 1.Microwave irradiation method-

Thanks to their time-saving, energy-efficient, and eco-friendly nature, microwave (Mw) methodologies have gained considerable attention in the scientific community. In this process, the carbonization of the small organic molecule occurs within a short time by microwave heating.

##  2.Hydrothermal method

Because of their non-toxic, environmentally safe, low cost, and simple operational technique, the hydrothermal methodology may be the most promising technique for the synthesis of CDs in recent years. In this technique, in a synthetic hydrothermal reactor, a solution of organic precursors is sealed where the reaction occurs at high temperature and pressure.

## 3.Pyrolysis method

Pyrolysis is an easy process for synthesizing CDs from organic compounds through simple chemical reactions carried out in the presence of strong acid or alkali at a very high temperature. Martindale et al. synthesized CDs with a mean diameter of ~6 nm by citric acid pyrolysis at 180 °C for the production of solar energy using hydrogen fuel.

# b) Top-down approach

In the “top-down” methodology, laser ablation, electrochemical oxidation, and arc discharge method are used to synthesize CDs.

## 1.Electrochemical method

The electrochemical approach synthesizes ultrapure CDs via an electrolytic process from larger molecular matter such as carbon nanotube, graphite, and carbon fiber. Larger organic molecules are used as an electrode in the presence of proper electrolytes.

## 2.Laser Ablation Method

For producing CDs of different sizes, the laser ablation process has been commonly used. Complex organic macromolecules are exposed in the laser ablation pathway under laser radiation performed in CW or pulsed mode, and nanosized carbon particles are isolated from the larger molecular structures.

## 3.Arc Discharge Method

An accidental incident was CDs using an arc discharge process. Xu et al. first mentioned this method during the synthesis of SWCNTs[8]. The production of tiny carbon fragments or CDs results in electrical discharge between two graphite electrodes. 

# SO WHAT ABOUT ITS APPLICATIONS ?

## 1.Detection of toxic chemical in food

Owing to the presence of hazardous materials such as heavy metal ions, pesticides, antibiotics, preservatives, and nonbiodegradable chemicals, more than a certain amount of allowable limit in foodstuffs, severe health problems can be induced. For ultrasensitive detection of heavy and highly poisonous metal iodines, CD-based PL quenching sensors are used.

## 2.Detection of Explosives

The global focus has been drawn to the identification and tracking of explosives concerning national and international security. Picric acid, trinitrotoluene (TNT), and dinitrotoluene (DNT) are very widely known explosives that are life-threatening to humankind, even at trace concentrations.

## 3.Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

SERS was developed as an elegant analytical technique to detect molecules down to a single molecule detection limit at ultrasensitive concentrations. However, because of the lack of proper interaction of organic molecules with metal or metal complexes, SERS spectra obtained from dielectric molecular assays and surface plasmon materials are not successful.

## 4.Drug Delivery, Bioimaging, and Biosensing

Due to their outstanding biocompatibility, water-solubility, non-toxic, photoluminescent, and high photostability, CDs are used in health and medicinal chemistry for drug delivery, bioimaging, and also in the development of successful biosensors.

CQDs’ explored properties and their regulations are fascinating for extensive scientific applications, which have been demonstrated. New properties and subtly tuning these properties, such as fresh phosphorescence and debatable UCPL, are also challengeable for its nubilous luminescent mechanism. The amorphous to the nearly crystalline internal structure, nonquantitative surface structure, and virtual size polydisperse may block the clarification of the luminescence mechanism. This problem will be solved through accurate synthesis, careful analysis, and intelligent consideration.

This how we can introduce the amazingly magical Carbon dots. We sum up here itself. But you can continue to read about this extraordinary yet important discovery.

CARBON DOTS

What exactly made “Requiem for a Dream” such a hit movie? Well, obviously apart from the brilliant storyline and breathtaking performances by the likes of Ellen Burstyn and Jared Leto among others, the fact that it deals with one of the most significant problems that has affected the human kind since forever, i.e.”Drug Addiction”.

# WHAT IS DRUG ADDICTION?

Addiction is a disease that affects your brain and behaviour. When you’re addicted to drugs, you can’t resist the urge to use them even when you’re aware of the harm it does to your body.

Drug addiction isn’t about just heroin, cocaine, or other illegal drugs. You can get addicted to alcohol, nicotine, opioid painkillers, sleep and anti-anxiety medications, and other legal substances.

At first, you may choose to take a drug because you like the way it makes you feel. You may think you can control how much and how often you use it. But over time, drugs change how your brain works. These physical changes can last a long time. They make you lose self-control and can lead you to damaging behavior.

# CHEMISTRY BEHIND DRUG ADDICTION

Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction.

Neuronal synaptic transmission involves:

Neurotransmitter presynaptic release 
Receptor binding, binding site release and 
Neurotransmitter degradation/reuptake Drug molecules “look like” natural substrates bind to receptor, transporter, or enzyme active sites 
Impact of a drug depends upon the strength of binding, which depends upon:

  * Shape & positioning of functional groups 
  * Hydrogen bonding 
  * Salt bridges 
  * π-stacking 
  * π-cation interactions 
  * Hydrophobic contacts 
  * Conformational rigidity 
Ability to pass through hydrophobic blood-brain barrier
What makes for the difference between someone who can drink or dabble in illicit drugs without developing dependence (or many negative consequences) versus someone who becomes an addict?

Stress level 
Genetic background 
Other biological factors 
Environment 
Social context in which drug use is occurring
EFFECTS OF DRUG ADDICTION ON YOUR BRAIN

Your brain is wired to make you want to repeat experiences that make you feel good. So you’re motivated to do them again and again.

The drugs that may be addictive target your brain’s reward system. They flood your brain with a chemical called dopamine. This triggers a feeling of intense pleasure. So you keep taking the drug to chase that high.

Over time, your brain gets used to the extra dopamine. So you might need to take more of the drug to get the same good feeling. And other things you enjoyed, like food and hanging out with family, may give you less pleasure.

When you use drugs for a long time, it can cause changes in other brain chemical systems and circuits as well. They can hurt your:

  * Judgment
  * Decision making
  * Memory
  * Ability to learn
Together, these brain changes can drive you to seek out and take drugs in ways that are beyond your control.

# WHEN TO GET HELP

If you feel that at any point, your drug use is out of control or causing harmful effects, consider getting in touch with and talking to a doctor immediately.

Getting better from drug addiction can take time, it’s definitely not an overnight process. There’s no one stop shop solution, but the right treatment can help you stop using drugs and even stay drug-free. This may include counselling, medicine, or both.

Chemistry of Drug Addiction


“Alexa, deliver my package to the address: House No. 09, Street X, Area Y on Mars.” I hope you can fathom this happening because I totally can. With the successful landing of Perseverance, humanity is taking giant leaps (literally) towards unlocking the key to one of the biggest enigmas – “Is life possible on Mars?” Soon dreams may shift from going on a world tour to a trip to Mars. Elon Musk’s statement of humans becoming interplanetary beings is not sounding as absurd right now as before! With findings suggesting previous life presence on Mars and technology advancing at the speed of light, we may soon start to pack our bags, put on the specialized suits and take off to Mars.

The reports from Curiosity paved the path for scientists to question the unthinkable. The samples, pictures and results from the rover pushed us in the right direction, confirming the theories on paper to be accurate. However, the technology of 2020 far exceeds that of 2011. NASA has sent the rover Perseverance with top-notch technology to unravel mysteries and answer the question, “Can green be brought to planet red?”

Perseverance was designed keeping Curiosity’s shortcomings in mind. It was redesigned to be more durable, efficient with the latest technology and materials. This 1,025 kg rover had advanced science instruments like Mastcam-Z, MEDA, MOXIE, PIXL, RIMFAX, SHERLOC and SuperCam, utilizing science to its absolute glory to acquire information about Martian geology, atmosphere and possible biosignatures.

SHERLOC (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organic and Chemicals) is an instrument that uses Raman spectroscopy to determine a sample’s key aspects and to identify whether it contains carbonaceous matter, the deciding factor of the presence of life. The Raman spectrum represents the vibration of an atom in response to laser light. Most importantly, it helps scientists determine the hydrogen to carbon ratio, which will help determine how much alteration the sample has undergone—this aids in understanding the earliest forms of life and, thus, evolution.

SuperCam is another instrument to identify the soil and rocks’ chemical compositions using cameras, lasers, and spectrometers. It’s an improvisation on the ChemCam of Curiosity. It can analyze the samples of soil and take color pictures instead of black and white. It can see up to a great distance which the rover cannot reach. Its components (Raman spectroscope, TRF and VISIR spectroscope) use advanced technology like LIBS (laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy) to obtain the spectra in the visible and IR regions to determine the sample composition and to clear the dust for clear pictures.

MOXIE (Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment) will produce oxygen from the Martian atmosphere’s carbon dioxide using solid oxide electrolysis. This will help to effectively create technology to provide an oxidizer for Mars Ascent Vehicle in a human-machine. MEDA (Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer) will help study dust and its impact on weather and measure the air temperature, radiation, relative humidity and pressure. This will help us know whether the martian atmosphere is suitable for us humans.

Yes, we have been making significant advancements. Still, it will be decades later that we can think of establishing on Mars. While the findings indicate Mars to be the next best option for us, the atmosphere there does not contain sufficient oxygen while being too cold. However, it’s not futile to dream about having a future on Mars: living in an egg-shaped heated pod, wearing specialized suits and having those odd food concentrates surrounded by dust and reddish hues!

References:

[Mars 2020.In Wikipedia.] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_2020.)
[Instruments. NASA Mars.] (https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/spacecraft/instruments/&nbsp)
[New spectroscopic techniques.(2016, August 16) ScienceDaily.]
(https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160816120658.html)

Unraveling the Red Planet – The Future of Mars Exploration


Have you ever heard of Fritz Haber? The German scientist once popularly said, “In peace, a scientist belongs to the world; during war, he belongs to his Fatherland.“

Every invention and discovery we make can be used for noble or evil. Dr. Fritz Haber is recognized as the person who saved millions of lives by inventing the Bosch-Haber process to extract nitrogen from thin air and prepare fertilizers on a larger scale. Still, during World War 1, Dr. Haber used this technology to develop a poison gas used in chemical warfare, which killed thousands of soldiers and dishonored every war ethic.

Haber invented this unique process to save Europe from starvation; it is a sequence of processes leading to the formation of ammonia. It directly combines nitrogen from the air with hydrogen under extremely high pressure and moderately high temperature. Iron is used as a catalyst and molybdenum as a moderator. The immediate removal of formed ammonia increases its yield by Le-Chatelier’s Principle of Equilibrium.

The Haber-Bosch process is the most economical for nitrogen fixation. This process is still used in chemical industries to make fertilizers and indirectly helps to feed 70% of the world’s population. For his invention, Dr. Haber was awarded the Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1918 but was condemned later on for using the same invention during the World War, which is directly responsible for the death of thousands.
Albert Einstein, a close associate to Dr. Haber, was once quoted saying to him, “Life cannot be balanced like an equation. Good deeds do not erase the evil ones.“

With the help of Wilhelm Ostwald, Haber’s process was used to make explosives and irritants essential for modern warfare like tear gas and chlorine. The gas that Dr. Haber made was disposed of using a system of pipelines. The wind carried the cloud of chlorine gas into the French trenches and unable to escape, the soldiers suffocated to death. It was equivalent to death by drowning but on dry land.

Once inhaled, the chlorine gas diffuses into the epithelial lining fluid of the respiratory epithelium and may directly interact with small molecules, proteins and lipids and damage them, or may hydrolyze to form hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid. This, in turn, generates chloride ions and reactive oxygen species. The dominant theory is that acids do the most damage.

The soldiers who inhaled the gas were observed to have a splitting headache, knife-edge pain in the lungs, coughing greenish froth off the stomach and lungs, and an unbearable thirst which was the worst part (as drinking water in that situation would mean instant death). It would have burned the person from inside. It was indeed a brutal death that came upon the French soldiers. With the death of over 10,000 French soldiers on the first trial, Dr. Haber was promoted to the rank of captain and given the nickname “Dr. Poison.”

Despite being a devout patriot and devoting his life to his country, Dr. Haber was sacked from employment due to his Jewish origin. He was dishonorably dismissed from his work despite devising trials to recover gold from seawater to help the German economy. Even after all his accomplishments as a scientist, Dr. Haber lost his wife and prestige due to his acts for his Fatherland. He is the perfect personification of the debate over science’s capacity for good and evil.

Things I do for my Fatherland


Humans have shared a curious relationship with the sun, stars, and many objects in the sky for ages. Humans also used the sky for navigation, cultivation of crops, keeping track of time and have been trying to understand celestial objects from the time unknown. In this voyage of humans, they have also started to analyze the composition of known substances in celestial objects. This is the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions called Cosmochemistry or Chemical cosmology. Now, let’s dive into the article to know more about this exciting field of Chemistry.

The study of the astronomical objects for chemical composition started in 1938 when Victor Goldschmidt, a Norwegian chemist and his group of colleagues, pioneered to compile the list of “cosmic abundances” based on the analysis of both meteorites and terrestrial rocks. He had justified that his study of meteorites gives accurate figures as terrestrial rocks wither away due to the action of air. Later in 1950, Harold Urey coined the term “Cosmochemistry” and is considered “Father of Cosmochemistry.” He has engaged in research that eventually led to an understanding of the origin of the elements and the chemical abundance of stars. In 1956, Urey, along with his colleague, German scientist Hans Suess, published the first table of cosmic abundances to include isotopes based on the analysis of meteorites.

The refinement of analytical instrumentation in the 1960s, significantly that of mass spectrometry, has allowed chemical cosmologists to perform a very detailed analysis of the isotopic abundances of elements found in the composition of meteorites. In the year 1960, John Reynolds determined, through the study of nuclides in meteorites, that the solar system elements were formed before the solar system itself, which has helped establish a timeline of the processes that occurred in the early solar system.

Recently, in 2011, scientists reported that cosmic dust contains complex organic matter created naturally and rapidly by stars. Again in 2012, the researchers from the Copenhagen University of Denmark have said that they have detected a specific sugar molecule, glycolaldehyde, in a distant, binary star system located 400 light-years from Earth. Glycolaldehyde is needed to form ribonucleic acid, or RNA, which is similar in function to DNA. Thus, we can infer that complex organic molecules may form in stellar systems prior to starting planets, eventually arriving on young planets early in their formation. The recent research results show that the traces of isotopes of many elements like Beryllium, Aluminium and radioactive elements like Rhenium and Osmium and many other elements are found vastly in many families of meteorites like chondrites and achondrites and Interplanetary Dust Particles (IDPs).

In September 2012, scientists reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as PAHs, when subjected to interstellar medium (ISM) conditions, are transformed through various reactions like hydrogenation and oxygenation hydroxylation to more complex organic compounds. Further, as a result of these transformations, the PAHs are observed to lose their spectroscopic signature, which could be one of the reasons for the lack of detection of PAH in interstellar ice grains, particularly in the outer regions of cold, dense clouds, known as Oort clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks.
Finally, we can conclude that the field of Cosmochemistry is vast, and very significant research is happening in this new and dynamic field. Chemists are playing a preeminent role in the Space Odyssey of Human history.

Chemistry in Cosmos

Gold! Its warm, glowing lustre appeals universally to humans across vast cultural and geographic boundaries. It has been used since times of old to adorn both people and their many creations, bringing elegance to all. Even now, gold retains its significance in our lives, as it continues to be an essential financial investment for many people.

Being such a highly desirable commodity, it’s no surprise that whenever a large amount of gold has popped up, it has been swiftly accompanied by an influx of people eager to be the first ones to find it and reap the immense profits. But to many, these ‘gold rushes’ only brought false hope. The culprit: iron pyrite, commonly known as fool’s gold. This two-faced mineral appeared as gold to the undiscerning eye, but that was all it had in common. Pyrite was brittle, unable to bend as flexibly as real gold, and when scraped, left a dark brown streak as opposed to its counterpart’s golden streak. That left pyrite as a relatively worthless mineral, a sad disappointment compared to the metal it was masquerading as. 

But let’s not be too hasty – the name ‘fool’s gold’ gives pyrite MUCH less credit than it is due. Iron pyrite, FeS2, has been ubiquitous throughout human history. Our ancestors would strike two pieces of it together to produce fire – small fragments would break off and react with the oxygen in the atmosphere, producing sparks. It has also directly contributed to the creation and success of the pharma, chemical and weapons industries. 

Since pyrite contains sulphur, it has remained an essential source of the non-metal to this day. It also gives us access to sulphuric acid, a massive milestone for the chemical industry: it unlocks the ability to produce fertilizers, pesticides, detergents, dyes, pigments and paints, paper, explosives, lubricants and batteries. On the pharmaceutical side, sulphur oxide gases obtained from burning pyrite were used to treat congestion and fumigation. Sulphurous acid could be used in creams to treat skin conditions like acne and eczema due to its antibacterial properties.  

But does fool’s gold still hold relevance in our world today? Oh, and how! Something we have known for quite some time is this: if we do happen to find fool’s gold, then the real deal may not be that far off. They tend to form in the same rock types under similar conditions. We regularly find traces of gold in pyrites in microscopic crystal defects or as nanoparticles and alloys. As such, we find pyrites with as much as 0.25% gold by weight. If we could extract most of this gold through leaching, the value of boring old pyrite would skyrocket. We just have to know where to look – in veins of minerals like calcite or quartz, pyrite undergoes oxidation to iron oxides or hydroxides, forming an oxidation “zone” that can be easily targeted. 

Another very promising avenue is pyrite’s use as a semiconductor. Silicon is the primary semiconductor with which solar panels are made nowadays, but pyrite blows it out of the water in every aspect. It absorbs 100 times as much light as silicon and costs 50 times less to extract. A layer of it 100 nanometres wide absorbs 90% of incident radiation, whereas its thicker silicon rivals absorb less than 20%. 

Pyrite has also been used in a landmark study that has managed to electrically transform a non-magnetic material into a ferromagnetic one for the first time ever. The pyrite was placed in contact with an ionic solution through a process called electrolyte gating, and a tiny voltage, only about 1 volt, was applied. The pyrite suddenly became magnetic but, like a switch, reverted to being diamagnetic as soon as the voltage was removed. 

Pyrite was once thought of as nothing more than an unfortunate find on the road to a real treasure but has since proven its worth to us time and time again. Whatever its future may be, it’s safe to say that even the wise must recognize the worth in fool’s gold.    

References

[ThermoFisher Scientific](https://www.thermofisher.com/blog/mining/pyrite-the-real-story-behind-fools-gold/)

[Science Daily](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/07/200730092624.html)

[African Pegmatite](https://mineralmilling.com/iron-pyrite-applications/)

[Forbes](https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2021/06/27/fools-gold-may-much-more-valuable-than-its-name-suggests/?sh=7e2b561562ae)

[American Scientist](https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-many-faces-of-fools-gold)

Pyrite: A Fool’s Errand, Or Hidden Gold?


Ma’am, we have a free period. Can we go play? “Mom, I am done with my homework. Can I go play?” Took you right down memory lane, didn’t it? We all are familiar with the thrill of watching intense matches, the feeling of having conquered the world during the nights our parents made an exception so that we could watch the world cup, shouting at an inanimate object and then feeling foolish and what not. Regardless of being a sportsman, the topic of sports invokes such intense feelings that we get lost in the moment. Hence it is a popular icebreaker and, well, honestly, sometimes a friendship breaker too.

Well, you may be wondering what chemistry has got to do with sports. Growing up, you may have had many questions about why the pool is green, why the tennis ball we use to play street cricket is not used in professional cricket matches, etc. Sadly, chemistry may not be able to answer “Who is better, Messi or Ronaldo?” but it definitely can answer the above questions!

Seeing the pristine blue pools on television and then seeing the questionable green color of the water of our local swimming pool, we all have been disappointed. We have questioned, what makes the water green? Why does my eye burn? Let’s dive right into answering the questions with the help of chemistry. The water in the pool is disinfected with chlorine. Chlorine acts as a disinfectant that helps eliminate the bacteria and the algae present in the pool. Chlorine also helps clear the pool of unwanted material and dust by oxidizing it, i.e. chemically destroying the substances. Chlorine is usually used in its solid form since its gaseous state is toxic and requires much regulation. And to answer why your eyes sting, chlorine reacts with the nitrogen present in the urine to form chloramine, which causes redness and irritation. Gross right!

When the weightlifters apply chalk and then dust their hands, it’s a move we all find super cool, but did you know the real reason behind it? Gym chalk is magnesium carbonate which has a grainy texture that helps you have a proper grip on the weights. It does so by soaking up the moisture and oils on the palms of your hands, and it also helps prevent skin tears. Gunpowder is another powder used in the popular sport of rifle shooting. It is composed of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur. Charcoal and sulfur act as fuel, though sulfur can undergo exothermic reactions at low temperatures, making it feasible. Lastly, potassium nitrate acts as a source of oxygen(at high temperatures) for the reaction.

While browsing through the beverage section at the supermarket, one distinctive blue drink has always caught our eye. Yes, I am talking about the beloved Gatorade, a popular liquid labeled a “sports drink.” So what makes its constitution so different from other drinks? Why is it so popular among athletes? And why does it give us that energy boost? These are beverages high in carbohydrate content which help replenish the water lost during exercise while providing energy. Sports drinks contain electrolytes (generally magnesium, sodium, calcium, chlorides etc.) which fill up on the lost fluids which your body loses via sweat while exercising. These drinks also contain carbohydrates that provide you with much-needed energy and sweeteners that help regulate your blood sugar levels. Sports drinks also help maintain the hydration ratio your body needs as you sweat out while playing.

Chemistry also plays an essential role in the selection of materials for various sports equipment, which makes playing these sports a lot easier. The fibers the tennis racquets are made of, the fabric of swimwear, the polycarbonate used in helmets and protecting gears are all carefully devised on the studies made by experimenting on different materials by material scientists.

“All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.” We all are familiar with this quote, having used it in countless speeches or essays, but now you know that chemists’ work does help make sports easier and an enjoyable experience for all.


Chemazines

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